How did Directed Activities Related to Text come about Essay Example

How did Directed Activities Related to Text come about Essay Traditionally secondary school pupils copied from the blackboard or from dictation to make a set of notes that they learned (by heart) for exams. However, copying things down is a completely passive task requiring little mental effort or involvement in the lesson. As comprehensive schools developed during the mid-1970s, classes became increasingly differentiated with some pupils for whom extended writing was a difficult and unpleasant experience and therefore a source of anxiety. The first step towards resolving this issue was to set small group work using worksheets needing only short answers to structured questions. This seemed a feasible way to organise a mixed ability class. However, many of the first worksheets relied heavily on recipe style instructions providing little opportunity for interaction with the text or making the pupils think (Sutton, 1992). Around this time, a case was made for language for learning, or language across the curriculum (Bullock Report, 1975). There were concerns that the routines of secondary school would allow some pupils to become too passive in their learning, with insufficient demand on them to reformulate their ideas, in other words, construct their own meaning (Sutton, 1992). There developed a need to resolve conflicting demands for busy science teachers to manage practical work well, but also to organise a range of other language-centred activities (ibid. ). A project described in Lunzer and Gardner (1979) suggested that passive reading occurred when reading tasks were vague and general, rather than specific, and where reading was solitary rather than shared. This project developed activities and techniques that made pupils focus on important parts of text, and involved them in reflecting on the content otherwise known as DARTs (Henderson and Wellington, 1998). We will write a custom essay sample on How did Directed Activities Related to Text come about specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on How did Directed Activities Related to Text come about specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on How did Directed Activities Related to Text come about specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer What were the consequences for the classroom? It was not just a matter of adding a text-based activity to each lesson, it also meant a change in attitude in how teachers engaged pupils in science lessons. Science teaching today is considered a process of facilitating learning new ways of seeing and talking. The means available are partly through experience (such as practical work) and partly linguistic (written work and discussion), and both develop what the learner sees in his or her minds eye (Sutton, 1992). What are the strengths and limitations of DARTs? Present-day DARTs offer a great deal of variety of tasks, and are designed to make pupils think more actively rather than following a set of instructions (see Appendix II) and therefore offer an invaluable tool to the teacher. Pupils can build up a collection of them into a record of their work. Few textbooks exactly cover the material as required by the teacher and, unless they have kept their own record, how will the pupils revise their work? Notes in the form of DARTs, from which the pupils make tables or label diagrams etc. rovide an accurate record. Any lesson time spent copying is dead time (no good at making a class think). If we use this dead time for a DART, pupils will have the text and will have begun to construct their own ideas of it. Their writing time is therefore more productively and creatively spent. DARTs can be used to test childrens understanding of how concepts are linked rather that the meaning of words. For example, the widely used Cloze technique aims to ensu re that pupils read the sentence with enough understanding to supply the missing word. To ensure the learning is active, the working words are omitted from the text (e. g. into, have, make, for) therefore requiring the pupil to understand the concept (active) rather than just filling in the words by their meaning (passive). During my school placement, I had the opportunity of creating and delivering DARTs to Year 9 pupils (see Appendix II for examples). In addition to the strengths of variety, recording and active learning, I encountered several other advantages of using DARTs. For example, teaching National Curriculum science is by definition a crowded agenda. There is little spare time and therefore every lesson minute must be treated as precious, and needs to be carefully planned (whether it is for practical, written work, discussion, problem-solving etc). Copying large chunks of text or tables is time-consuming and leaves less time for active learning. Using DARTs enabled me to spend more time on the learning objectives. Using DARTs avoided too much chalk and talk and ensured the class stayed engaged in the lesson. In addition, a bonus advantage was that a DART exercise settled lively classes (particularly worth remembering as a trainee teacher). Finally, and significantly, a strength which can only be observed first-hand the pupils enjoyed DARTs. Despite all the strengths of DARTs, there are limitations to the technique. For example, it is easy for worksheets of any kind to be discarded or lost after use and the pupil not to regard them as having value. For example, during my school placement, any worksheets should have been glued into pupil notebooks during the lesson. However, in any class I observed there were inevitably at least 2 pupils who had forgotten their notebooks and therefore their worksheets remained loose at the bottom of their school bags or in the class tray until the following week, or worse, left behind on the floor of the lab. Clearly there are organisational and management issues which need to be addressed. Effective use of DARTs requires a recognised (by pupil and teacher) system for keeping DART records. Cloze text can suffer from the problem that pupils tend to want to find the missing word without understanding the text which it is why it is wise to omit the working words. Since each pupil needs a copy of their own, it may be better to convert cloze text into scrambled text, which requires more understanding and less guessing. There can be common difficulties with reading. For instance pupils often cannot relate to the type of science texts used in school in terms of language and style or the class could comprise of a wide range of reading ages. There are three problems with using extracts from textbooks. First the writing may be too difficult. The simplest formula that measures the readability of texts is the SMOG test (see Appendix III). If the book has short sentences and few long words it is easier to read and therefore a low reading age score. Any DART needs to be tailored to the reading age of the pupil. A second problem is that the subject content may not fit your requirements exactly and schools are often limited in the range of text that they can offer pupils. The third problem is that DARTs may pose difficulties for ESL pupils. Therefore the individual literacy abilities in a class must be considered when selecting DARTs for use in a lesson.

On some Counterproductive Social Aspects of Controlled Subst essays

On some Counterproductive Social Aspects of Controlled Subst essays In human society controlled substances have always had a significant presence in social situations. From the dawn of human civilization in Central Africa about twenty-five thousand years ago, drugs have been a part of human culture. In almost every past civilization there is evidence of drug use in some form. Honest normal people obviously have a want inside of them to alter their state of consciousness, to argue this fact is both a futile and imbecile endeavor. Instead we must come to terms with the reasons one would want to gethigh.? To portray these users as anything less than normal humans would only demonstrate the extent of one's ignorance on matters of human nature. What we do is what we do, and all that we do by definition is natural. For any one to call these controlled substancesbad? orevil? again would only demonstrate one's overwhelming ignorance. We can instead acknowledge the fact that in modern society, certain drugs could be counterproductive or even dangerous to one' s wellbeing. I aim to designate the reasons one in modern American society would ever think to voluntarily come under the influence of a substance. Also I would like to elaborate on the justification of ritualistic or ceremonial use of substances, and how this reflects on the prohibition of select substances in the United States. We must reevaluate the situation of prohibition in the United States based on the facts presented herein. I also aim to question the justification of total prohibition in light of alternate policies that might ultimately benefit our society in a much greater way than prohibition ever did. I will try my best to harbor no biases towards or against drugs. I hope that the reader when reading this will employ the same objective attitude. Having stated that, controlled substances can have a definitely ha a profound negative effect on one's being. Depending on the circumstances, drugs can be extremely counterproductive towards one's gene...

Compare how you topic was discussed by Benton Banani (The Mishomis Essay

Compare how you topic was discussed by Benton Banani (The Mishomis Book) - Essay Example I will analytically and reflectively look at the following works; the Mishmi’s book by Benton Bandai, lectures and class presentations by Rainey Gay wish, seeing the world with aboriginal eyes by Brian Rice and god is red by Vine Deloria Jr. this books have explained the native life of the Indians and its influence to their culture and religion. To begin with, in the book god is red; a native view of religion the author has explored the origin, history and doctrines of the Indian tribal culture. He does this by comparing and contrasting this culture to others. He compares the Indian culture and the Christian traditions. He finds the Christian traditions to be absurd and groundless and points out the superiority of the Indian culture (Kramer, 2000). The concept of creation and deity is one subject tackled and the author finds nothing in common between the two cultures. Another subject raised death and religion. This is where Deloria finds little sense on the Christian side. Deloria tend to wonder why Christians fear death despite the blissful afterlife promised to them. On the other hand the Indians don’t fear death because they believe nothing ever dies and death is just but a transition. In this case he tries to demonstrate the superiority of the Indian culture to that of the Christians. Overall the book is just abo ut the Indian tribal religions including its origin and contemporary use. It is also advocating for revival of time honored traditions. On the other hand in the book seeing the world with aboriginal eyes, the author explores the four directional perspectives on non-human and human cultures. The four complex dimensions that make up existence or totality include; seeing path, ways of relating, coming to knowing and ways of doing. Seeing the path encompasses beliefs and values evolving from the spirit world. Ways of relating entails the relationships between the

The Spitfire Grill Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Spitfire Grill - Essay Example All the characters in this movie are offered a second chance to establish a turning point in their lives through a reinventing that could change their way of life. In that case, residents of town of Gilead, who are characters in the movie The Spitfire Grill (1996), are offered a second chance. However, this is not taken to be a chance for reviving their difficult lives; in fact, they are expected to reinvent themselves from detestable setting, though they take them as a chance of making excuses for procrastination. One of the characters is Nahum, who is portrayed to be antagonistic in the movie due to the conflicts raised between them and Percy, which leads to Percy’s death. Therefore, Nahum gets a possibility to have a manifestation of his life; in fact, Nahum is portrayed as antagonistic person suffering from mid-age crisis. In fact, he lacks confidence due to his failure in life other than ascendancy, and he is egotistical, sexist who evades taking responsibility of his fai lure not managing his real estate company appropriately. Nonetheless, he is offered a chance to take a self-reflection in the entire movie, but he avoids taking chances of avoiding mistakes. The other character is Aomame considered to be among the three main characters; in fact, he helps The Dowager to terminate the male sexists, who bring mischief to women. She holds a notion that peoples alter their memory instinctively, while others alter their history in a way that alleviates their blunders. In contrast, Murakami maintain that people may be acquainted with their faults in an erroneous way. Furthermore, other groups of people who have consistent behaviors of preventing their mistakes, though this happens if they are not offered a second chance. Nonetheless, through his character, it is evident that only one chance and people how are failures deny themselves a chance to cancel their failure. Analysis of these characters indicates that chances are available to achievers, though the re is no absolute causality between achievement and chances, others depicted to be striving for accomplishment other than waiting for chances. During my high school learning, I had high inspirations of becoming the one of the best performing students; in fact, my parents wished the same. Therefore, this led a decision to wait for a chance and attain this objective. However, there were situations when chances would emerge and I took these chances by getting a better score such as during a test, though there were other instances when I could complain that I did not meet my expectations. In this case, this applies to the situation with Estragon and Vladimir in the absurdist play, who were waiting for a Godot by Samuel Beckett; for instance, Estragon and Vladimir were waiting for a chance to meet with Godot. Ironically, Estragon offers a significant motive underneath the notion that waiting for Godot would be meaningless; in fact, there are chances that Godot will offer them a great opp ortunity, though both Estragon and Vladimir had not met Godot; in fact, this chance had no attribute of bringing achievements, instead it would lead to mischief. In conclusion, this paper focuses on analyzing characters in the movie The Spitfire Grill, who had second chance to reinvent their lives. It is apparent that some took this chance to decline other concentration and evade their mistakes; in fact, others

Theoretical Explanation Of Balance Of Power

Theoretical Explanation Of Balance Of Power The concept of the Balance of Power can be a useful tool in explaining the behaviour of states. Mostly because it is founded on the theory that all states act to preserve their own self interest. If they are to do this they must prevent domination by any other state, which leads to the assumption that they must build up power and form alliances. Throughout history we can see the B.O.P. concept in action. The states of Europe held each other in balance through the first 300 years of the modern state system. The clearest example of the B.O.P. concept can be found in the Cold War. In the Cold War the two superpowers the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. held a stable world balance between them. Both states sought to deter domination by the other through a build up of arms and through the creation of strong alliance systems. Under the B.O.P. theory the logic of the Cold War strategies and alliances seems apparent, with the best method of security being strength. In comparison with the era of the Cold War, we are now living in a constantly changing world. In recent years a number of emerging nations have been challenging the position of dominance of the old powers, which are dropping down the international pecking order. In economic terms, countries from the South now account for more than half of global GDP (Gross Domestic Product), are leading world growth -with growth rates above 11% (China) and 9% (India) -and consume more than half of the worlds energy. It is forecast that in thirty years time, China and India will be global powers and that, along with the United States of America (USA), they will compete amongst themselves for world leadership. Since the end of the Cold War, the United States has been alone in the world; no state or combination of states provides an effective counterweight. Moreover Globalization, Market forces and operation of non state elements without regard for national boundaries and loyalties have made the balancing phenomenon more complicated. Therefore, some recent studies in the field of International relations advocate that power politics including balancing of power has become obsolete and the theory of the balance of power has lost its relevance. This phenomenon has raised series of questions and just a few are picked out here:- Question 1: Historically why and how the states opt for International balance of power? Question 2: Is contemporary international politics devoid of balance of power and power politics? Question 3: Are traditional measures and sources of power losing their relevance in world? Question 4 What is the effect of prevailing global security situations on International balance of power? Aim of the Paper: The dual aim of the paper is to map the different trends that are shaping the senario for the future global power balance as well as to offer a tool to better cope with the high uncertainty on how this landscape will evolve in the comming decades. Research design:- This paper represents an attempt by five individuals to think collectively about the international Balance of Power (BoP), analyse past and current international setup to establish pattern of BoP and finally make futuristic prediction in this regard. A humble attempt has also been made to suggest a strategy for Pakistan to carving out its role and relevance in future global seting. Relatively simple research design is used for this paper. It is in fact a historical, qualitative and an analytical appraisal of transformation of the global power balance that rests on the data extracted from both primary and secondary sources. This paper is mainly focused on studying the building blocks and mechanisms, by virtue of which the theories global power balance, are offering its scholarly and normative influence for contributing in predicting futuristic international scenarios. Three empirical gaps and theoretical arguments in the field of foreign/security policy and IR have been discussed in the study. For conduct of the research the paper would follow the standpoint of the realists school. In the simplest form the realist paradigm claims that in International relations, sovereign states are the key actors. In due process of International interaction among the states, their interests intrinsically come into conflict, mainly for gain of material power. Balancing thus occu rs to protect/ promote its share in material gain. Organization Of The Paper: Paper is organized in six parts. Part one is about theoretical explanation of balance of power. Part two discusses historical perspective of BOP. Part three is comprised of Determinants of Rising power. Part four presents Shifts in Global balance of Power a myth or reality consequences and likely power counter in the next two decades alternatives to the balance of power as a basis for international order . Part five is focused on Challenges and Opportunities for Pakistan in likely future international settings. Conclusion and Recommendations are placed at the end. THEORY OF BOP According to the balance-of-power theory balance of power is a fundamental process of international politics, it is a kind of master law of international relations. There is a long history to this Newtonian conception of the balance of power. Yet in the European intellectual tradition it was, at least through the eighteenth century, a minority view. Much more common was the idea that prudent sovereigns ought to pursue balance-of-power politics. If they followed balance-of-power logic, they would preserve their own independence as well as prevent Europe from falling prey to an oriental-style despotism. Thus the balance of power was an important adjunct to European ideologies that rejected universal empire on normative grounds. In contemporary international-relations theory, balance-of-power theory is primarily associated with structural realism. Kenneth Waltz, the founder of structural realism, argues that because the international system lacks a common authority (is in a state of anarchy), it inclines states to behave in ways that, over time, produce recurrent balancing equilibria. Within contemporary realism (broadly defined) there exist a number of approaches that reject this interpretation of the basic dynamics of world politics. Both hegemonic-stability theorists and power-transition theorists argue that the natural equilibrium of international systems is unbalanced: that systems are characterized by the repeated emergence of dominant powers. In substance, the arguments of both camps are basically identical, although the former incline towards qualitative analysis and the latter towards statistical studies. They do adopt somewhat distinctive terminology, however. Hegemonic-stability theorists generally view such systems as hegemony under anarchy, i.e., the dominant power acts as a kind of quasi-world government, setting the rules for trade, war, and peace. Power-transition theorists, in contrast, tend to dismiss the notion that the international system is anarchical. In J.F.K. Organskis view, the international system is characterized by a pyramid of power, with the dominant state at the top. This system is hierarchical, and has a great deal in common with domestic systems. Advocates of both approaches tend to disagree with balance-of-power theorists that the best way to preserve peace between major powers is for states to achieve a balance of power between them. The logic is straightforward: when power is unbalanced, i.e., when a state or coalition of states is clearly superior to their potential rivals, then the former have no need to initiate wars to get what they want while the latter know they are likely to lose any confrontation. Wars between great powers, however, happen when both sides believe they can win, i.e., when they at least perceive the existence of a rough equality of capabilities. Hegemonic-stability theory and particularly the work of Robert Gilpin helped spawn a third variant of realism, often called neoclassical realism. Neoclassical realism shares a great deal in common with the understanding of the balance of power prevalent in early modern Europe: balancing is a prudent policy, but there is no force of nature that impels states to engage in balancing behavior. In my view, behind all the interpretations of the balance of power lies the appeal to realism in the conduct of international affairs. Realism remains the best, perhaps the only persuasive, argument for restraint; and it is common ground that the doctrine of the balance of power is a device to promote restraint, whether it is argued that lack of restraint is wrong, or dangerous, or ultimately bound to fail. In that sense the balance of power in international affairs is clearly related to the idea of checks and balances within a government, which is equally a device to impose restraint on men who might otherwise, seduced by power, abandon it. When Hans Morgenthau wrote Politics Among Nations in 1948, he was coming from the experience of World War II and his observations of the struggle for power and peace. He was very aware of the international system of the 19th century and how it changed through the first half of the 20th century. Then, as the Cold War settled in, he observed how a new bipolar world emerged from the former multi-polar world. He was very sure that an objective and universally valid truth existed to explain the world politic and that truth was accessible to human reason. The Realist view of the world was born with Morgenthau (and others) with this view that to successfully navigate the treacherous world of international politics, one must have a very clear understanding of how the world really operated. Waltz, arriving on the scene a generation later and with more time to observe the apparent bipolarity established by the United States and the Soviet Union, decided that the early Realists were fundamentally correct. He posits that since the international world is anarchical and that power is the coin of the realm, states must make decisions based on the position they have relative to others. Therefore, the actions of states can, to some extent, be predicted based on their power position in the region and world. States, in Waltzs understanding of the World, remain the principal actor. Transnational, sub-national, and even a-national actors may arrive on the scene and even have effects in the international arena, but the state will always find a way to deal with the interlopers. None of the other potential replacements for the state have the capability of providing what states can do for their populations. Realists have a pessimistic view of the world; there is conflict, always has been conflict, and there always will be conflict. This view rejects the notion that one can differentiate morally between virtuous and non-virtuous states in the international system. Such a view of how the world really works does not easily admit that the system can be changed and that conflict can be avoided. The Realist, then, is concerned with how the world actually operates and not with how the world ought to operate. The Realist sees the state as the fundamental actor in the international system, which is anarchical and amoral. As a result, actions taken by states that are not aligned with or do not at least take into account these realities are likely doomed to failure. Morgenthau was quite convinced that mistaken faith in Wilsons liberal philosophy had taken the world to the brink of disaster. The attempt to use morals to decide on actions was not successful. Only firm decisions taken with a full understanding of the reality of the international system would bring successful foreign policy. Fundamental is this system is the balance of power. Each state is concerned as to where it sits in relation to other states. When one state begins to gain power, other states will make decisions based on that power. Some will organize to counter those gains, either as an individual or by forming alliances. Coming along a generation after Waltz, Stephen Walt added to the Realist paradigm the notion of the balance of threat. Really just another way of discussing the balance of power, he shows how threats are the means by which states communicate with each other, thus ensuring they are taken seriously so their interests are protected. Balancing of power is a two sided proposition, though, meaning that a state, by its actions, can convince other states to either balance against them or with them. Band-wagoning, a process, by which states join with others, ostensibly to counter an aggressive state, is a mechanism Walt believes must be better understood and taken into account by leaders of states. We may actually be seeing some of this going on in response to U. S. actions with respect to Afghanistan and Iraq. In the case of Iraq, by standing up to aggressive action on the part of Al Qaeda, most of NATO stood with the United States and remains with US in the fight in Afghanistan. The opposite occurred with Iraq, when the European states saw American actions as being aggressive, and have band-wagoned in opposition to the United States. In order to promote a theoretical understanding of international relations and get answers of our research questions we will use realists approach of the balance of power. The realists theory provides answers to our questions as under:- Realists Theory Question 1: Historically why and how the states opt for International balance of power? Against threatening (or powerful) states by forming alliance Question 2: Is contemporary international politics devoid of balance of power and power politics? Balance of power is still relevant Question 3: Are traditional measures and sources of power losing their relevance in world politics? They are still relevant Question 4 what is the effect of prevailing global security situations on International balance of power? After the disintegration of USSR, traditional international balance of power was disturbed because of US unilateral approach to the worlds leading problems. After the current transitional flux, several poles are emerging and the traditional balance of power is going to be restored. DEFINITION OF BALANCE OF POWER Political Dictionary: balance of power Probably the oldest concept in the study of International Relations going back at least to the work of Thucydides. It is closely associated with both diplomatic parlance and realist theory. Its logic derives from the self-help imperative of the international systems anarchic structure, in which states are obliged to give priority to survival and security. In pursuing this logic, states will usually join together to oppose any expansionist centre of power that threatens to dominate the system and thus threaten their sovereignty. Balance of power behaviour is central to conceptions of the national interest and to alliance policy. If successful, it preserves individual states and the anarchic structure of the system as a whole. Its opposite is bandwagoning, in which states seek security by joining with the dominant power. Realists conceive balance of power as an automatic tendency in state behaviour. In an international society perspective, balance of power is a conscious policy shared amongst a group of states, and serving as the principle by which they regulate their relations. Neither balance nor power are measurable, and their interpretation is much debated. Barry Buzan Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: In international relations, an equilibrium of power sufficient to discourage or prevent one nation or party from imposing its will on or interfering with the interests of another. The term came into use at the end of the Napoleonic Wars to denote the power relationships in the European state system. Until World War I, Britain played the role of balancer in a number of shifting alliances. After World War II, a Northern Hemisphere balance of power pitted the U.S. and its allies (NATO) against the Soviet Union and its satellites ( Warsaw Pact) in a bipolar balance of power backed by the threat of nuclear war. Chinas defection from the Soviet camp to a nonaligned but covertly anti-Soviet stance produced a third node of power. With the Soviet Unions collapse (1991), the U.S. and its NATO allies were recognized universally as the worlds paramount military power. Balance of power, 0n Britannica.com Columbia Encyclopedia: Balance of power is system of international relations in which nations seek to maintain an approximate equilibrium of power among many rivals, thus preventing the preponderance of any one state. Crucial to the system is a willingness on the part of individual national governments to change alliances as the situation demands in order to maintain the balance. Thucydides description of Greece in the 5th cent. B.C. and Guicciardinis description of 15th-century Italy are early illustrations. Its modern development began in the mid-17th cent., when it was directed against the France of Louis XIV. Balance of power was the stated British objective for much of the 18th and 19th cent., and it characterized the European international system, for example, from 1815-1914. After World War I the balance of power system was attacked by proponents of cooperation and a community of power. International relations were changed radically after World War II by the predominance of two superpowers, the Unit ed States and the Soviet Union, with major ideological differences between them. After the 1960s, with the emergence of China and the Third World, a revived Europe and Japan, it reemerged as a component of international relations. With the collapse of the USSR in 1991, the United States, as the sole remaining superpower, has been dominant militarily and, to a lesser degree, economically. US Foreign Policy Encyclopedia: The balance of power appears at first sight a simple concept. It has been defined as a phrase in international law for such a just equilibrium between the members of the family of nations as should prevent any one of them from becoming sufficiently strong to enforce its will upon the rest. Yet the phrase has always been of more use in political polemic than in political analysis. Like other phrases with a strong emotional appeal it is vague, and it would lose its appeal if it were more precise. Its obscurities are several, but the most important is that it blends the descriptive and the normative. The condition is one, the term balance implies, toward which international life is forever tending. That is the descriptive element. But the condition is also one that may be upset, and right-thinking statesmen should constantly be on the alert to preserve or restore it. That is the normative element. These two elements reinforce one another. Because such a balance will be established in an y event, it is sensible and moral to work toward it. PART-II HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF BALANCE OF POWER HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF BALANCE OF POWER 4. Prehistoric and Medieval Periods. During the Period of the Warring States in China (403-221 BC), the development of large, cohesive states accompanied the creation of irrigation systems, bureaucracies, and large armies equipped with iron weapons. These Chinese states pursued power through a constantly shifting network of alliances. In ancient Greece during the Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BC), the rising power of Athens triggered the formation of a coalition of city-states that felt threatened by Athenian power. 5. Pre World Wars Period a. In the 17th century the Habsburg dynasty, which ruled Austria and Spain, threatened to dominate Europe. During the Thirty Years War (1618-1648), a coalition that included Sweden, England, France, and The Netherlands defeated the rulers of the Habsburg Empire. b. Early in the 19th century, Napoleon repeatedly made efforts to conquer large areas of Europe. A broad coalition of European states-including Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia-defeated France in a series of major battles that climaxed with Napoleons defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. c. The classical European balance of power system emerged thereafter in an alliance known as the Concert of Europe, organized in 1815 by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich. This loose alliance between Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France ensured that a handful of great powers would coexist, with none able to dominate the others. Under this system, and with Britain playing a balancer role, peace largely prevailed in Europe during the 19th century. It is not an accident that the doctrine of the balance of power-alike in international and in domestic politics-received its classic and most rigorous statements at a time when foreign policy was largely a matter for rulers who could use the war potential of their states for their own aggrandizement. It was because a ruler had to be able to wage effective war that he had to be allowed the armed force that contributed to his domestic control. d. British reliance on a navy rather than on a standing army was important to the growth of British liberties-and later to American liberty. In a sense, therefore, the international balance of power was needed to check the pretensions of rulers who lacked any effective domestic check. The balance of power, however, although it may act to restrain the actions of those who believe in the doctrine, is in the first instance a device to restrain others. 6. Inter and Intra World Wars Period (1914-1945) a. When World War I broke out, although all parties made some effort to maintain or protect the balance of power (which, of course, they interpreted differently), none of them could argue that governments, or princes, were behaving in the way that one would expect. German apologists had to contend that Germany was surrounded by malevolent foes and that the survival of Germany was at stake. The allies had to contend not merely that Germany was too powerful for comfort, but that German militarism threatened a European civilization that would otherwise be peaceful. The argument, in short, could not be cast in terms of the balance of power. b. In order to contain German and its allies, a formidable alliance was formed in Europe. German threat was such that USA broke away with the centuries long stand of neutrality and joined the alliance against Germany. Status quo however, was maintained in Europe. Historians will long continue to debate the causes that finally brought the United States into the war. c. Same was the case in World War II, where, a status quo was required to be maintained and German advances were to be stopped, alliance on the lines of World War I was formed. The alliance completely decapacitated German led axis powers. In both the World Wars, the entry of the United States so quickly and completely tilted the balance of power in favor of the side it joined. Had the United States been regarded as an element in the balance; the wars in the form they took would never have broken out and it is here that the world saw the introduction of WMD. 7. Cold War Period a. It was well recognized that the United States and the Soviet Union were in direct and unique competition. The appalling consequences of nuclear war introduced a new kind of stability. The so-called balance of terror or balance of deterrence ensured that each nuclear power was anxious not to give the other power any sort of signal that would justify an attack, and was also anxious not to identify such a signal. This caution was compatible with, and even required, an arms race. b. The ideological struggle reflected the knowledge of both great powers that they contended in a fast-changing world; and the Cold War began to lose intensity, not when the protagonists decided to abandon it but when world circumstances changed and new elements began to contribute to the balance. c. It became almost conventional to speak in terms of a world of four poles-the United States, the Soviet Union, Europe and Japan. d. US led West used all means and opportunities to balance Soviet military power and kept on trying to contain Soviet Union. On the other hand Soviet Union formed an alliance with the opposite block countries to counter the US. Struggle of countering each power continued till the Soviet Union finally collapsed. With the subsequent disintegration of the Soviet Union, the United States became incontrovertibly the worlds dominant power. 8. Post Cold War a. After the disintegration of Soviet Union, USA emerged as sole global power hence as per the ground realities, the entire world had to align its policies with the US. Without an apparent foe to challenge its security, the major question confronting U.S. foreign policy was what would succeed the Cold Wars bipolar balance of power. b. The issue among academics and political commentators was whether the United States should emphasize its dominant position as a unipolar global power, or seek a leading role in a tripolar or multipolar system. 9. Conclusions from Historical Perspective. In nut shell post cold war power balance is categorized by US unilateralism, Wests political, economic and social control to the extent that the situations symbolize with that of eighteenth and nineteenth centurys colonization. Striking conclusions of the post cold war power balance are as under:- a. The end of the Cold War in US and Europe and the ongoing integration of the European economies alongside attempts at greater political integration in the continent have given rise to a view that traditional concepts of security are no longer relevant. There is a powerful perception that the idea of the state and its sovereignty has been made irrelevant by processes that are taking place at both the global and local level. Concept of security has been widened to the extent that currently it includes everything under the sun. b. Concept of Balance of Power has also been changed from the known enemy threat to fear of unlimited unknowns. Interpretations of the balance has also been changed from balance among nation states to balance among civilizations and much beyond. c. Post cold war era reintroduces the phenomena of colonization with changed face of chaining the third world through economic, trade and technology transfer policies under the umbrella of IMF, world bank, various technological regimes and UN. PART III DETERMINANTS OF RISING POWER (ELEMENTS OF NATIONAL POWER OR ANY OTHER FACTORS DEEMED NECESSARY TO QUALIFY A POWER TO BE THE RISING POWER) The international system is characterized by several unique features which colour the entire pattern of interstate relations and international politics. These features may be summarized as follows:- The central fact about the international system is that it consists of sovereign and independent nation states. These nation states act in their several interests. Their actions are the result of such factors as the judgments of the individual state authorities. The international system has no central political organ capable of enforcing uniform laws and standards of behavior. The United Nation is too weak to perform the task. There are very few universally accepted rules of the game. Generally recognized sources of these rules are four:- Diplomatic practices, (b) International law, (c) Morality and (d) World Public opinion. The significance of morality and world public opinion in international politics is hard to determine. The laws and principles flowing from other two sources are not properly codified and states individually interpret them in their interest. (5) Various states differ in their historical experiences, political ideologies and economic systems. Again they follow different religions, belong to different cultures and value systems. It is the complicated interaction between these various factors that colours their entire outlook. (6) The different states vary with respect to such vital factors as size of population and territory, character, political systems, resources, ideology and judgment. (7) The power distribution of the world is very odd. Between super powers (like the USA and the Soviet Union) and small powers (like Peru, Ethiopia, Srilanka, Sudan etc) there are a number of powers-medium, secondary and lesser powers. (8) Despite the fact of unequal power distribution each state by virtue of being independent and sovereign is regarded as equal and claims equal rights. In the absence of any central organ capable of guaranteeing these equal rights, the protection of these equal rights becomes the concern of each individual state. They are free to select and apply their own methods to protect their status and rights. The result is the international political activity. (9) The cumulative result of all the above factors is the emergence of a typical system which unlike community lacks common values and goals, has no universally accepted procedures and code of conduct where because of these factors resort to arms to resolve disputes is not uncommon. NATURE AND ROLE OF POWER The word power refers to ones capacity to control. As man endeavours to control the various aspects of his environment, his capacity to control these aspects manifests itself in different ways. It is his scientific knowledge (power) through which he controls nature whereas his capacity to control the means of production and distribution is called his economic power. Political power is different from these. It is mans power over the minds and actions of other men. Two questions arise in this connection-first, why men want to control and direct the activities of others and second, what are the sources of this power. One probable answer to the first question is that the best way to avoid control over one-self by others is to control all others. Perhaps controlling all others is the only surest means for avoiding possible control by them over one-self. Diving deeper into this line of analysis leads one to the Hobbesean conception of human nature. Another answer is that man wants to control others for material benefits. Thus economic needs of man become the principal driving force behind all his political activity. As regards the sources of power, too, there is a wide divergence of opinion. The different views can broadly be categorized into two- the classical view and the modern view. According to the classical view the sources of political power are economic and physical strength, which one can exert on others. It exerts through orders, threats etc., and operates by creating either an expectation of benefit or the fear of disadvantages. In the modern sense power is more a spiritual and intellectual leadership. It is the capacity of a leading state to invite confidence, support and co-operation from lesser states through its championship of promising political principles or a value system. This type of power is based on a kind of concensus in shared values. It assumes the form of voluntary agreement among states to follow a given course of action. It is exerted not through orders and threats but through persuasion. It is tutelage in principles and values through which the powerful try to ident ify their aims with the aspirations of the lesser powers. It is because of this that it is some times called an ideological contest or

Innocence in William Blakes The Divine Image Essay -- Blake Divine Im

Innocence in Blake's The Divine Image  Ã‚      Blake was both a poet and an artist and he created many Illuminated works which combined the two. These forms, each powerful in their own right are even more so when used together as in "The Divine Image." In analyzing this piece I will be looking at the elements and principles of art, the corresponding ‘elements and principles' of poetry and how they support one another to convey William Blake's idea of Innocence. Elements are the fundamental building blocks used in either art or poetry. In art they are line, shape/form, value, texture, colour (which I wasn't able to deal with in this case as the only reproduction was black and white) and space. In poetry one might classify the elements as word choice, word placement, scansion or meter, capitalization and punctuation. Principles are what are produced by putting the elements together. In art they are focal point, movement, subordinate area (background or setting), contrast and repetition. Interestingly in poetry several are similar, namely movement, contrast and repetition. Other things one might classify as principles of poetry are rhyme, line treatment, and tone. Of all the elements of art I will be dealing with, line and shape are by far the most important. All the figures are outlined and the vines running throughout the picture constitute line as do the letters. Line is also essential in the creation of value as this was printed on a press and all the ink is the same value. To create changes in value Blake used different densities and numbers of lines. The only texture in this work is a sort of implied texture that comes with creating value through a build up of line; some areas tend to acquire a ridged look. The use o... ... contrast of the living and the fire but neither the vine nor the figures are consumed. This presents an image of innocence similar to that of the Lion and the Lamb. Both the poem and the image serve to re-enforce each other as they present the freedom, harmony, and safety found in the state of Innocence. It seems fitting that these together would be called an Illumination as they help shed light on Blake's true meaning. Works Cited and Consulted Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and of Experience. Intro. Geoffry Keynes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967. Easson, Kay. "The Art of the Book." Blake in His Time. Essick and Pearce ed. 1978. (35-51). Frye, Northrop. "Poetry and Design in William Blake." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 10 (Sept., 1951) 35-42. Mellor, Anne. Blake's Human form divine. U of California P Berkeley; 1974.

Reading Reflection Essay

The reader-response appeal to literature relies on the reader’s ability to process the information being shared rather than the author or the text itself. With the reader-response, a person reads text and then relates to automatic explanations about life that are triggered moment by moment as they continue to read. The literature uses triggers that the reader’s nervous system spontaneously responds to. This type of approach to reading allows people to imagine and be creative within them. It allows the reader to hear, feel and smell what they are reading as if it were happening right now in front of them. The reader-response approach with â€Å"the Road Not Taken† by Robert Frost offered a common understanding for situations in which I had to choose between two decisions. There was a visceral vision of a dilemma to make a choice that would eliminate the other option from ever becoming a possibility when Frost submitted that there was remorse for not being able to travel down the paths for both decisions. Every decision we make causes a difference in some sort of way. Since Frosts’ dilemma was not clear and concise I was able to implement my own choices to make a decision on. The key linguistic that triggered the process was use of the term ‘path’. I was able to relate the poem to a difficult decision of whether or not I was going to move across the country for a job offer. When Frost wrote â€Å"because it was grassy and wanted wear† I was able to relate to the yearning to want to move to Florida (grassy), but not leave the support of his family behind in Michigan (wanted wear). My fiancà ©e and I had to sort through the mutual acknowledgement of each others concerns, have common understandings, and act with the other persons concerns in mind. Both ideas were individually acceptable and understanding by themselves, however; the path â€Å"to where it bent in the undergrowth†, was our childlike needs to be close to family and always have them to be there for us when needed. To travel across the country without a guarantee of success was non existent. The road â€Å"less traveled by† was the decision my fiancà ©e and I ended up executing; we moved to Florida with a faith that the decision was for the better. Most of our peer group still lives in Michigan; and while moving to Florida may carry unknown factors we feel as if we know how our lives will plan out by staying in Michigan. By taking the road less traveled we are unaware of the consequences that await me – both positive and negative – and that makes life more thrilling and I greet each week with anticipation. Mr. Frost’s ability to craft a poem with generic terms allows for the possibility to implement my own experience and apply absolute creativity. I suppose that people who take more risk and accept the unknowns about life can relate more to this poem than others but we can all still relate. I think that at some point I our lives we all come across a path that could go either way and we have to choose which path we will take. Perhaps in some cases the road that is more traveled may be safer or predictable, however, the road less traveled will have more twists and turns that can make the risk a more debatable question of whether it is acceptable or not. Though the poem is not one that I would typically gravitate towards, I’ve realized that by going out of the normal reading habits it allows my imagination to be inspired to find ways to relate. The reader-response approach to the poem would allow most viewers to find some way to relate to it because the way that it is crafted allows a reader to examine each sentence as something personal of the author and the vagueness allows for unlimited boundaries of the reader to interpret for themselves what could and will happen. The notion that everyone can interpret this poem differently is intriguing and inspires my creativity with reading and finding a way to relate myself. In the past, present or future – this poem is applicable to any area of thought that the reader allows. The theme of the poem may after all be to seize the day, and the creativity that comes out from our imagination ensures that the reader-response approaches to be guaranteed when reading â€Å"The Road Not Taken†. References (Clugston R W 2010 Journey into Literature)Clugston, R. W. (2010). Journey into Literature. San Diego, California: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.